Debates
Cultural differences
You must be able to describe and evaluate issues of ethnocentrism in psychological research; including bias in interpretation and application
Ethnocentrism is a type of bias where we use our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judging other groups. The tendency is to view our own beliefs and customs as superior and those of other groups as strange. As this is how we construct the world it makes it impossible to avoid being ethnocentric. On the other hand, cultural relativism is the ability to view the beliefs and customs of others within the context of their culture and not ones own.
In Psychology many studies are conducted in the USA or the UK. This means they present a ‘western’ viewpoint. 64% of psychological researchers from US. In some texts, >90% of studies have US PPs. Samples predominantly white middle class.
Collectivist/non western cultures have different values – the group is more important and so emphasis is on obedience and responsibility; individualistic cultures value achievement and competitiveness – this can mean findings may not apply
Cross cultural research aims to see whether behaviour is innate or culture specific. Innate behaviour is universal rather than unique to a specific culture, and supports nature rather than nurture.
In your studies you will have seen the effects of cross cultural research in Child Psychology (the strange situation), in Clinical Psychology (the spiritual model) and also in Social Psychology (obedience).
How far psychology is a science
Science is:
Falsifiable – trying to disprove rather than prove a hypothesis. Psychology is not able to do this as the subject matter involves humans and there will be elements of chance and individual differences
Reductionist rather than holistic - reductionism is breaking something down into a measurable variable whereas holism looks at the whole. Psychology is reductionist to some extent e.g. looking at specific parts of behaviour. However it also is holistic e.g. case studies
Based on Scientific matter – biochemistry, DNA, evolution, animal experiments, drug treatments, hormones. Some approaches contain scientific matter,
Objective rather than subjective
Quantitative rather than qualitative
Draws Cause and effect conclusions
Has high Control
Follows the hypothetical-deductive model:
For each of the approaches from AS you need to consider whether or not they are scientific.
The issue of social control
The use of drug therapy, token economy, classical conditioning and the role of the practitioner/therapist
Society has a set of rules, norms and customs that people learn from an early age through socialisation. These rules are expected to be followed using internal control (e.g. a person’s conscious and moral guidelines they follow). Sometimes this is not the case and formal methods of making people follow society’s expectations are required, and this is known as social control.
Drug Therapy
Heroin is produced from morphine. In the brain heroin is converted into morphine and it works on the receptors at the synapse.The morphine binds itself to receptors which reduces the effect of GABA, which inhibits the production of dopamine from dopaminergic neurones. This leads to increased dopamine activity in the synaptic cleft and this leads the feelings of euphoria users experience.
Drug therapy involves prescribing a substitute that works in the same way. Methadone blocks the effects of heroin and removes withdrawal symptoms, which can make it easier for some to quit. Methadone is prescribed officially and controls addiction – it is a maintenance programme. Users of methadone who continue to take heroin will not experience the feelings of euphoria so they will be less likely to take the drug as well as methadone.
Social control: Methadone is taken once a day and the prescription requires going to a clinic for this. It needs careful monitoring.
Ethical implications: Social pressure – right to choice?; Treatment – time consuming, invasive, drugs are still drugs, tested on animals
Practical issues: Commitment; Time – counselling; Peer group; Need to complete the course
Practitioner Power: Power lies with the person administering the drugs – choice over drug, dose; Power may also come from society – drug treatment programmes may be part of court conditions; However…the individual may choose not to turn up to treatment sessions, they make the choice of environment and may go back to drugs after treatment – this may mean they have the ultimate power
Token Economy Programmes
Behaviour is managed through operant conditioning and tokens are given for desirable behaviour. Tokens can then be exchanged for something the individual wants. This is a form of control as it is shaping behaviour into what society deems as appropriate. We have seen examples of TEP in criminology and clinical psychology.
Ethical issues: What is desirable behaviour? Reward given (e.g. essential or not); Free will – often used for mental disorders so individuals may have no say over the programme
Practical issues: Staff training and consistency; Environment and transference; Cost – staff, rewards
Practitioner power: Staff have power over the individual as they control the tokens; Programmes are usually run in institutions and individuals are unlikely to be allowed to withdraw from a programme
Classical Conditioning
Systematic Desensitisation is used as a method of treating phobias. A hierarchy of fear is created so that the person learns to relax at each stage with the feared situation.
Aversion Therapy is a treatment for alcoholics. It associates nausea with alcohol in order for the person to see this as undesirable.
Classical conditioning could therefore be considered a form of social control as it deems a behaviour to be undesirable or irrational, and that the person needs help
Ethical issues: some patients may be pressured into treatment e.g. in institutes; However therapy is useful and involves a strong therapist-patient relationship. It is not usually used in isolation and patients can be involved in their treatment
Practical issues: SD works for specific phobias only; requires the need for an individual to relax; Costs are low as no equipment required, although time consuming; Aversion therapy may interfere with everyday life e.g. if conditioning to avoid alcohol must still be able to drink liquids without feeling sick;
Practitioner Power: Therapist relationship important; Therapist has a position of power as they control the stimulus/hierarchy; However the client is involved in their treatment and can withdraw if they wish
Role of the therapist
Practitioners may also be seen to have power in therapy situations. We have looked at CBT as used as a treatment for mental disorders and dream analysis as part of psychoanalysis.
These therapies require a strong client-therapist relationship. CBT can be considered more client centred but it still requires the therapist working with the client to change their thinking. Dream analysis is more subjective, and therefore the therapist has more power over the client
The nature-nurture debate
Nature refers to what we are born with e.g. our genes. It also refers to any process that occurs as we mature and the effects pre-natally. Nurture refers to our environment and how this affects us as we develop and grow.
Most psychologists now argue that there is an interaction between nature and nurture. In Clinical Psychology the diathesis-stress model shows that mental health disorders may be due to both biological neurotransmitters as well as environmental factors such as social class.
You must be able to explain how the approaches from AS can fit into the nature-nurture debate, and consider topics within child, criminology and clinical that demonstrate this debate e.g. are criminals born or made?
Cultural differences
You must be able to describe and evaluate issues of ethnocentrism in psychological research; including bias in interpretation and application
Ethnocentrism is a type of bias where we use our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judging other groups. The tendency is to view our own beliefs and customs as superior and those of other groups as strange. As this is how we construct the world it makes it impossible to avoid being ethnocentric. On the other hand, cultural relativism is the ability to view the beliefs and customs of others within the context of their culture and not ones own.
In Psychology many studies are conducted in the USA or the UK. This means they present a ‘western’ viewpoint. 64% of psychological researchers from US. In some texts, >90% of studies have US PPs. Samples predominantly white middle class.
Collectivist/non western cultures have different values – the group is more important and so emphasis is on obedience and responsibility; individualistic cultures value achievement and competitiveness – this can mean findings may not apply
Cross cultural research aims to see whether behaviour is innate or culture specific. Innate behaviour is universal rather than unique to a specific culture, and supports nature rather than nurture.
In your studies you will have seen the effects of cross cultural research in Child Psychology (the strange situation), in Clinical Psychology (the spiritual model) and also in Social Psychology (obedience).
How far psychology is a science
Science is:
Falsifiable – trying to disprove rather than prove a hypothesis. Psychology is not able to do this as the subject matter involves humans and there will be elements of chance and individual differences
Reductionist rather than holistic - reductionism is breaking something down into a measurable variable whereas holism looks at the whole. Psychology is reductionist to some extent e.g. looking at specific parts of behaviour. However it also is holistic e.g. case studies
Based on Scientific matter – biochemistry, DNA, evolution, animal experiments, drug treatments, hormones. Some approaches contain scientific matter,
Objective rather than subjective
Quantitative rather than qualitative
Draws Cause and effect conclusions
Has high Control
Follows the hypothetical-deductive model:
For each of the approaches from AS you need to consider whether or not they are scientific.
The issue of social control
The use of drug therapy, token economy, classical conditioning and the role of the practitioner/therapist
Society has a set of rules, norms and customs that people learn from an early age through socialisation. These rules are expected to be followed using internal control (e.g. a person’s conscious and moral guidelines they follow). Sometimes this is not the case and formal methods of making people follow society’s expectations are required, and this is known as social control.
Drug Therapy
Heroin is produced from morphine. In the brain heroin is converted into morphine and it works on the receptors at the synapse.The morphine binds itself to receptors which reduces the effect of GABA, which inhibits the production of dopamine from dopaminergic neurones. This leads to increased dopamine activity in the synaptic cleft and this leads the feelings of euphoria users experience.
Drug therapy involves prescribing a substitute that works in the same way. Methadone blocks the effects of heroin and removes withdrawal symptoms, which can make it easier for some to quit. Methadone is prescribed officially and controls addiction – it is a maintenance programme. Users of methadone who continue to take heroin will not experience the feelings of euphoria so they will be less likely to take the drug as well as methadone.
Social control: Methadone is taken once a day and the prescription requires going to a clinic for this. It needs careful monitoring.
Ethical implications: Social pressure – right to choice?; Treatment – time consuming, invasive, drugs are still drugs, tested on animals
Practical issues: Commitment; Time – counselling; Peer group; Need to complete the course
Practitioner Power: Power lies with the person administering the drugs – choice over drug, dose; Power may also come from society – drug treatment programmes may be part of court conditions; However…the individual may choose not to turn up to treatment sessions, they make the choice of environment and may go back to drugs after treatment – this may mean they have the ultimate power
Token Economy Programmes
Behaviour is managed through operant conditioning and tokens are given for desirable behaviour. Tokens can then be exchanged for something the individual wants. This is a form of control as it is shaping behaviour into what society deems as appropriate. We have seen examples of TEP in criminology and clinical psychology.
Ethical issues: What is desirable behaviour? Reward given (e.g. essential or not); Free will – often used for mental disorders so individuals may have no say over the programme
Practical issues: Staff training and consistency; Environment and transference; Cost – staff, rewards
Practitioner power: Staff have power over the individual as they control the tokens; Programmes are usually run in institutions and individuals are unlikely to be allowed to withdraw from a programme
Classical Conditioning
Systematic Desensitisation is used as a method of treating phobias. A hierarchy of fear is created so that the person learns to relax at each stage with the feared situation.
Aversion Therapy is a treatment for alcoholics. It associates nausea with alcohol in order for the person to see this as undesirable.
Classical conditioning could therefore be considered a form of social control as it deems a behaviour to be undesirable or irrational, and that the person needs help
Ethical issues: some patients may be pressured into treatment e.g. in institutes; However therapy is useful and involves a strong therapist-patient relationship. It is not usually used in isolation and patients can be involved in their treatment
Practical issues: SD works for specific phobias only; requires the need for an individual to relax; Costs are low as no equipment required, although time consuming; Aversion therapy may interfere with everyday life e.g. if conditioning to avoid alcohol must still be able to drink liquids without feeling sick;
Practitioner Power: Therapist relationship important; Therapist has a position of power as they control the stimulus/hierarchy; However the client is involved in their treatment and can withdraw if they wish
Role of the therapist
Practitioners may also be seen to have power in therapy situations. We have looked at CBT as used as a treatment for mental disorders and dream analysis as part of psychoanalysis.
These therapies require a strong client-therapist relationship. CBT can be considered more client centred but it still requires the therapist working with the client to change their thinking. Dream analysis is more subjective, and therefore the therapist has more power over the client
The nature-nurture debate
Nature refers to what we are born with e.g. our genes. It also refers to any process that occurs as we mature and the effects pre-natally. Nurture refers to our environment and how this affects us as we develop and grow.
Most psychologists now argue that there is an interaction between nature and nurture. In Clinical Psychology the diathesis-stress model shows that mental health disorders may be due to both biological neurotransmitters as well as environmental factors such as social class.
You must be able to explain how the approaches from AS can fit into the nature-nurture debate, and consider topics within child, criminology and clinical that demonstrate this debate e.g. are criminals born or made?